Physiology is the study of animal and humans body functioning which can be investigated at cellular and tissues level in biological fluids like blood, milk and urine. Physiological experiments explain the basic mechanism that operates in human or in animals and how they interact with normal and clinical physiology. Animals are biologically identical to human in many ways and animal experiments provide us ample scope in understanding the physiological functions that are happening in a normal way or not in the body of livestock. Clinical physiology involves diagnostic specialty in which specific tests of heart, blood, kidneys, liver and udder functions are performed. To maintain good health and body condition of livestock, timely detection of diseases by the analysis of blood and urine is highly desirable. The knowledge of analytical methods in blood, milk or urine help the students and researchers to investigate normal body functions and manage animal health and welfare. Animal physiology experiments as a whole plays a critical role in exploring and understanding the normal body functions vis-a vis abnormal functioning of body tissues. The analytical methods documented in the book will be immense use for researchers, students and progressive farmers in understanding the basic analytical techniques and their application for health management of the livestocks.
Dr. Mahendra Singh has been actively engaged in the research and teaching program in Animal Physiology Division of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal since 1984. Dr. Singh main areas of research have been environment, lactation physiology and milk production management. Dr. Singh has been decorated with many prestigious awards for research excellence like Dr. D. Sunderesan Award, Dr. S.N. Mullick Award, Dr. P.K. Dwarka Nath Award. He has published more than 220 research publications in high rated International and National journals of repute, authored many text books, technical books, bulletins and manuals. Dr. Singh acquired advance training on Growth Hormone at Dairy Science Department, University of Florida, USA and has been on expert panel of many scientific committees, General Secretary of Alumni Association and at present is Vice president of Society of Animal Physiologist of India. Dr. Singh has served as an Officer Incharge of Cattle Yard Section, Head of Department of Animal Physiology Division at premier National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal. Dr. Singh has also served asa ICAR-Emeritus Professor of Animal Physiology at the Institute.
Dr. Rachana Sharma obtained her B.V.Sc. & A.H. degree in 2013 from Nana Ji Desmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur, and MP and Master's and Doctoral degrees at National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR-NDRI), Karnal, in 2015 and 2018, respectively, specializing in Mastitis and Nutritional Aspects of Physiology. Dr. Sharma currently serves as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry at College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Rampura (GADVASU), Ludhiana. She has published 13 research and review articles in peer-reviewed national and international journals. She contributed 28 popular articles, and has authored one book, and 3 delivered Radio talks. Her most impactful research addresse critical issues in livestock health and nutrition, particularly focusing on the prevention and management of mastitis.
Chapter 1. LACTATION PHYSIOLOGY
Objective 1: To Study Bovine and Ovine Udder Anatomy Characteristics .......................1
Objective 2: Estimation of Milking Rate and Milk Secretion in Dairy Animals ......................5
Objective 3: Estimation of Milk Secretion Rate in Cattle and Buffaloes ..........7
Objective 4: Estimation of Residual Milk in Dairy Animals ...............10
Objective 5: Determination of Somatic Cell Counts (SCC) in a Given Milk Sample ........................11
Objective 6: Estimation of Milk Protein and Casein by Formal- Titration Method (Singhal and Desraj, 1989) .......................................13
Objective 7: Estimation of True Protein in Cow Milk Sample by Kjeldahl Method (BIS, 1981) ...........................15
Objective 8: Estimation of Protein by Lowry Method (Lowry et al 1951) ..........................16
Objective 9: Determination of Milk Fat by Gerber’s Method .............18
Chapter 2. REPRODUCTION
Objective 1: Detection of Estrus and Behavioural Sign of Estrus .......21
Objective 2: Detection of Estrus in Rats Using Vaginal Smear ...........26
Objective 3: Examination of Cervico-Vaginal Mucous in Animals .....28
Objective 4: Rectal Examination of Female Genital Organ for Pregnancy Diagnosis ..................................29
Objective 5: Physical Examination of Bull Semen ..............................31
Objective 6: Assessment of Mass Activity of Spermatozoa ................32
Objective 7: Assessment of Individual Motility of Spermatozoa ........33
Objective 8: Determination of Total Sperm Concentration .................34
Objective 9: Biochemical Tests for Sperm Quality Determination......36
Objective 10: Composition and Preparation of Semen Extenders .......37
Objective 11: Collection and Evaluation of Bull Semen .....................39
Objective 12: Preparation of Semen Diluter (Extenders) for Freezing of Semen in Bovines ................................45
Objective 13: Physical and Biochemical Evaluation of the Bull Semen ..................................................48
Objective 14: Determination of Fructose in Bull Semen ....................51
Objective 15: Methods of Preservation of Bull Semen ........................52
Objective 16: Application of Radio-immunoassay (RIA) for Estimating Plasma Hormone Level .......................................................56
Objective 17: Estimation of Serum Progesterone by ELISA ...............59
Chapter 3. PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
Objective 1: Estimation of Plasma NEFA (Non-Esterified Fatty Acids) Levels .............................61
Objective 2: Estimation of Serum AST and ALT Enzymes .................64
Objective 3: Estimation of Total Plasma Protein by Kit Method .........66
Objective 4: Estimation of Total Plasma Protein by Biuret Test ..........68
Objective 5: Determination of Pepsin Enzyme Activity Using Haemoglobin as Substrate .............................71
Objective 6: Estimation of Triglycerides in Serum Sample by Kit Method .........................73
Objective 7: Estimation of High-Density Lipids (HDL) in Serum Sample ................................75
Objective 8: Estimation of Plasma Albumin Level in Serum Sample ......................................78
Objective 9: Determination of Serum Alkaline Phosphatase Enzyme .....................................81
Objective 10: Estimation of Urea in Serum Sample by Kit Method ...82
Objective 11: Determination of Blood Glucose by Follin and Wu-Method .....................................84
Objective 12: Estimation of Lactic Acid in Blood Plasma or Serum ...87
Objective 13: Estimation of Calcium in Plasma Sample .....................89
Chapter 4. ENVIRONMENT PHYSIOLOGY
Objective 1: Significance of Measurement of Climatic Elements .......91
Objective 2: Study of Climatic Elements Associated with Physiology of Growth and Production. .................................................93
Objective 3: To Study Various Types of Metrological Observations ...95
Objective 4: Environmental Instruments for Recording the Climatic Elements ....................97
Objective 5: Calculation of Temperature Humidity Index (THI) and Its Significance ...............................................................................99
Chapter 5. ANALYSIS OF URINE
Practical 1: Collection and Preservation of Urine Sample ................103
Practical 2: Physical and Chemical Examination of Urine ................105
Practical 3: Detection of Ketone Bodies in Urine Sample ................108
Practical 4: Detection of Bile Salts in Cattle Urine ...........................111
Practical 5: Detection of Blood in Urine Sample ..............................112
Practical 6: Microscopic Examination of Urine Cast & Sediments ..113
Practical 7: Determination of Specific Gravity of Urine ..................116
Practical 8: Estimation of Sugar in Urine Sample by Benedict’s Test ...................................118
Practical 9: Determination of Bile Pigments in Urine Sample ..........120
Practical 10: Quantitative Determination of Bile Salts in Urine Sample .......................................................................................122
Practical 11: Determination of Protein in Urine Sample ...................123
Chapter 6. RUMEN PHYSIOLOGY
Objective 1: Rumen Movements and Their Significance ..................125
Objective 2: Recording of Rumen-Reticular (RR) Motility in Farm Animals ...................................127
Objective 3: Collection of Rumen Liquor from Farm Animals .........128
Objective 4: Physical Examination of Rumen Liquor .......................129
Objective 5: Determination of Total Volatile Fatty Acids in Rumen Liquor .....................130
Objective 6: Determination of Ammonia Nitrogen in Rumen Liquor ...................132
Objective 7: Enumeration of Total Bacterial Counts in Rumen Liquor ..............................133
Objective 8: Enumeration of Total Protozoa Count in Rumen Liquor ..................................135
Objective 9: Estimation of Proteolytic Enzymes Pepsin and Trypsin..................................................136
Objective 10: Determination of Total Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) in Rumen Liquor ........................................138
Objective 11: Determination of Total Nitrogen in Strained Rumen Liquor ......................139
Objective 12: Collection of Saliva and Its Enzymatic Studies ..........141
Objective 13: Estimation of Alpha-amylase Enzyme Activity ..........142
Chapter 7. HAEMATOLOGY
Objective 1: Determination of Physiological Parameters of Animals ...............................................................................................145
Objective 2: Collection and Preservation of Blood Sample in Farm Animals ......................................................................................149
Experiment 3: Method of Collection of Plasma and Serum from Blood ..........................................................................................151
Objective 4: Determination of Hemoglobin in Blood Sample ...........153
Objective 5: Determination of Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) ......................................155
Objective 6: Determination of Packed Cell Volume or Hematocrit Value ......................157
Objective 7: Determination of the Bleeding Time in Animals by Duke's Method ...............................159
Objective 8: Determination of Coagulation/Clotting Time ................160
Objective 9: Determination of Erythrocyte Fragility Test (EFT) .......162
Objective 10: Determination of Total Erythrocyte Count (TEC) in Blood Sample ........................164
Objective 11: Determination of Total Leucocyte Count (TLC) in Blood ............................169
Objective 12: Determination of Differential Leucocyte Count ..........172
Objective 13: Determination of Total Platelet Counts .......................176
Objective 14: Cross Matching of Blood Samples in Farm Animals ................................178
Objective 15: Measurement of Arterial Blood Pressure in Farm Animals ................................180
Objective 16: Recording of Electro-Cardiogram (ECG) in Farm Animals ....................................182
Objective 17: Determination of Lung Volume and Capacities by Spirometer ....................185
