This edited volume provides a comprehensive and forward-looking exploration of soilless and vertical farming as transformative approaches for modern agriculture. It presents the fundamental concepts and contextual relevance of these systems, particularly in addressing critical challenges, such as land scarcity, water limitations, urbanization, and climate change. With a focus on Indian agricultural conditions, the book introduces readers to the scientific principles governing plant growth, root zone management, and resource optimization under soilless environments. The book systematically covers a wide range of production systems, including hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics, along with their design considerations and suitability for different scales of operation. It offers detailed insights into growing media, nutrient solution management, and water quality, emphasizing sustainable and locally adaptable practices. In addition, the integration of protected cultivation and controlled environment agriculture with vertical farming models is discussed, highlighting the importance of managing light, temperature, and humidity for achieving optimal crop performance. Beyond production technologies, the volume addresses emerging advancements, such as automation, sensor-based monitoring, and IoT applications that enhance precision and efficiency in soilless systems. It also focuses on crop selection, scheduling, and specialized production techniques for leafy greens, herbs, microgreens, and high-value crops. The book further examines pest and disease management, urban food security, and the economic and entrepreneurial aspects of these systems, offering a holistic perspective that bridges scientific knowledge with practical application.
Dr. Dinkar J. Gaikwad is an Associate Professor and Associate Dean, at the M.S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Paralakhemundi Campus, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India. Dr. Gaikwad is renowned for his pioneering work in soilless farming technology, particularly in hydroponics and aeroponics. With extensive experience in this field, he has seamlessly integrated academic research with practical applications to advance the development of innovative farming solutions. His research contributions are well-documented in numerous national and international publications, reflecting his expertise and impact on the field. Dr. Gaikwad also holds seven patents related to his work, underscoring his role as a leading innovator in agricultural science. Beyond his research, Dr. Gaikwad is committed to enhancing sustainable agricultural practices and advancing soilless farming technologies through both his teaching and applied work.
Dr. Santosh D T serves as an Assistant Professor and Associate Dean at the School of Agriculture and Bio-Engineering, Centurion University of Technology & Management, Odisha. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural and Food Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kharagpur in December 2019 under supervision of Prof. K. N. Tiwari. With over a decade of research experience as a Research Associate at the Precision Farming Development Centre, IIT, Kharagpur (2010–2020), supported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, he has significantly contributed to the fields of micro-irrigation, greenhouse technology, protected cultivation techniques, and hydroponics. Dr. Santosh has authored and co-authored several research articles in reputed national and international journals. His academic career is further enriched by four years of industrial experience in marketing with organizations, such as TAFE Tractors, GEA Farm Technologies, and HDFC Bank, giving him a comprehensive understanding of both scientific and commercial aspects of agricultural engineering.
Dr. Sagar Maitra is a distinguished academician and researcher with a Doctorate in Agronomy, specializing in crop husbandry. With a strong foundation in fieldbased agricultural research, his areas of expertise include cropping systems, nutrient management of field crops, crop physiology, precision farming, and sustainable agriculture. He currently serves as a Professor and Dean at the M.S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of Technology and Management, where he actively contributes to academic leadership, research development, and capacity building. Dr. Maitra brings a dynamic and versatile professional background, combining extensive experience in academia, development sectors, and agricultural extension. His career includes over 16 years as a Senior Producer in a National Electronic Media Network, where he was instrumental in disseminating scientific farming practices through electronic platforms. Additionally, he served for three years as a Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy) at a Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), further strengthening his connection with grassroots agricultural development and technology transfer. With over 190 research and review articles published in reputed national and international journals, Dr. Maitra has made significant scholarly contributions to agricultural sciences. He has also contributed more than 100 book chapters and has authored and edited nine books with leading publishers, establishing himself as a prolific writer and thought leader in his field.
Dr. Surajit Murasingh is currently serving as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering at Centurion University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi, Odisha. He obtained his B.Tech. in Agricultural Engineering from CAU, Imphal, followed by an M.Tech. in Water Resource Engineering from the National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Odisha. He earned his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, with a specialization in climate and land use/land cover change analysis. With around three years of combined academic and industrial experience, Dr. Murasingh has developed strong expertise in his field. He has contributed to the scientific community through numerous research articles and book chapters published in reputed national and international journals. In addition to his research contributions, he actively serves as a reviewer for several renowned journals published by Springer and Elsevier.
1 Introduction to Soilless and Vertical Farming in Indian Agriculture..................................................................................1 Tapaswinee Sahoo and Spuheru Spita
1.1 Historical Development and Global Overview..............................2
1.2 Need for Soilless and Vertical Farming in India............................4
1.3 Status of Soilless and Vertical Farming in India............................6
1.4 Types of Soilless Farming Systems Practiced in India...................8
1.5 Vertical Farming Models Relevant to Indian Conditions.............10
1.6 Crops Suitable for Soilless and Vertical Farming in India...........12
1.7 Resource Use Efficiency and Sustainability Aspects...................13
1.8 Role in Food and Nutritional Security.........................................15
1.9 Economic and Employment Opportunities..................................17
Summary......................................................................................18
References ...................................................................................19
2 Introduction to Soilless and Vertical Farming in Indian Agriculture............................................................................................23 Madhusmita Pani and Sambangi Meghana
2.1 Global Evolution of Soilless Farming..........................................24
2.2 Present Status of Soilless Farming in India..................................26
2.3 Types of Soilless Farming Systems Practiced in India.................27
2.4 Crop-Wise Adoption of Soilless Farming in India.......................29
2.5 Role of Protected Cultivation in Promoting Soilless Farming.....31
2.6 Government Initiatives and Institutional Support........................32
2.7 Economic Status and Market Potential........................................34
2.8 Constraints and Challenges in Indian Conditions........................36
2.9 Scope for Small and Marginal Farmers........................................37
2.10 Role of Soilless Farming in Urban and Peri-Urban India............39
Summary......................................................................................40
References ...................................................................................41
3 Principles of Plant Growth and Root Zone Management................45 Savirigana Prasanth and Subash Chandra Munda
3.1 Fundamentals of Plant Growth.....................................................46
3.2 Root System Architecture and Function.......................................48
3.3 Root Zone Environment in Soilless Systems...............................49
3.4 Oxygen and Aeration Management..............................................51
3.5 Water Uptake and Root–Water Relations.....................................53
3.6 Nutrient Uptake Mechanisms in Soilless Systems.......................54
3.7 Root Zone pH and EC Management............................................56
3.8 Temperature Effects on Root Zone...............................................57
3.9 Role of Microorganisms in the Root Zone...................................58
3.10 Root Health and Stress Management...........................................60
3.11 Root Zone Management in Different Soilless Systems................61
3.12 Monitoring and Diagnostic Tools.................................................62
3.13 Advances in Root Zone Management..........................................63
3.14 Relevance to Vertical Farming.....................................................64
Summary......................................................................................65
References ...................................................................................66
4 Types and Design of Soilless Farming Systems Suitable for India.................................................................................................69 Nandini Priyadarsini Nayak, Sushreeta Meher, Rituparna Meher
4.1 Classification of Soilless Farming Systems..................................70
4.2 Hydroponic Systems Suitable for India........................................72
4.3 Aeroponic Systems.......................................................................74
4.4 Aquaponic Systems......................................................................76
4.5 Substrate Based Soilless Systems.................................................78
4.6 Vertical Soilless Farming Systems...............................................80
4.7 Structural Design Considerations.................................................81
4.8 Environmental Control and System Integration...........................83
4.9 Water and Nutrient Delivery Design............................................85
4.10 Energy and Power Management...................................................86
4.11 Automation and Smart Design Elements.....................................88
4.12 Crop Specific System Design.......................................................89
4.13 Design Adaptations for Indian Agro-Climatic Zones...................91
4.14 Economic and Scalability Considerations....................................93
4.15 Constraints and Design Challenges..............................................94
Summary......................................................................................96
References ...................................................................................97
5 Hydroponics for Indian Climatic Conditions: Concepts and Applications................................................................101 Spuheru Spita and Tapaswinee Sahoo
5.1 Agro-Climatic Diversity of India and Its Implications..............102
5.2 Principles of Hydroponic Crop Production................................104
5.3 Types of Hydroponic Systems Suitable for India.......................106
5.4 Design Considerations for Indian Climatic Conditions.............107
5.5 Growing Media and Containers.................................................109
5.6 Nutrient Solution Formulation and Management.......................111
5.7 Water Quality and Resource Management.................................113
5.8 Environmental Control under Indian Conditions.......................114
5.9 Crop Selection and Variety Suitability.......................................116
5.10 Crop Management Practices.......................................................117
5.11 Pest, Disease, and Algal Management........................................119
5.12 Automation and Low-Cost Technologies...................................121
5.13 Economics and Adoption in India..............................................122
5.14 Case Studies and Success Stories...............................................124
5.15 Role of Hydroponics in Urban and Peri-Urban India.................125
Summary....................................................................................126
References .................................................................................127
6 Aeroponics and Its Potential for Seed Potato and High-Value Crops...............................................................................131 Sushreeta Meher, Rituparna Meher, Nandini Priyadarsini Nayak
6.1 Principles of Aeroponic Plant Growth........................................133
6.2 Types of Aeroponic Systems......................................................134
6.3 Components and Design of Aeroponic Systems........................136
6.4 Nutrient and Water Management in Aeroponics........................138
6.5 Environmental Control and Crop Management.........................140
6.6 Aeroponics for Seed Potato Production.....................................142
6.7 Aeroponics for High-Value Crops..............................................144
6.8 Pest, Disease, and Biosecurity Management..............................145
6.9 Automation and Precision Technologies....................................147
6.10 Resource Use Efficiency and Sustainability...............................148
6.11 Economics and Commercial Viability........................................149
6.12 Challenges and Limitations........................................................151
Summary....................................................................................152
References .................................................................................153
7 Aquaponics Systems for Small and Medium Farmers in India.....155 Subash Chandra Munda and Savirigana Prasanth
7.1 Principles of Aquaponic Systems...............................................157
7.2 Types of Aquaponics Systems....................................................158
7.3 System Components and Design................................................160
7.4 Fish Species Suitable for Indian Aquaponics.............................162
7.5 Plant Selection for Aquaponics..................................................164
7.6 Water Quality and Nutrient Management...................................165
7.7 Role of Microorganisms and Biofiltration..................................167
7.8 Climate and Environmental Management..................................169
7.9 Pest, Disease, and Health Management......................................170
7.10 Automation and Low-Cost Technologies...................................172
7.11 Productivity and Performance Indicators...................................173
7.12 Economics of Aquaponics in India.............................................175
Summary....................................................................................177
References..................................................................................178
8 Growing Media and Substrates: Indigenous and Sustainable Options...........................................................................181 Rituparna Meher Nandini Priyadarsini Nayak, Sushreeta Meher
8.1 Functions and Requirements of Growing Media.......................182
8.2 Classification of Growing Media...............................................184
8.3 Physical Properties of Growing Media......................................186
8.4 Chemical Properties of Growing Media.....................................187
8.5 Biological Properties of Growing Media...................................189
8.6 Indigenous and Locally Available Substrates in India...............190
8.7 Inorganic and Mineral Substrates...............................................192
8.8 Sustainable and Alternative Substrate Materials........................193
8.9 Substrate Formulations and Blending Techniques.....................195
8.10 Substrate Preparation and Processing.........................................196
8.11 Sterilization and Disinfection of Growing Media......................198
8.12 Substrate Selection for Different Crops......................................199
8.13 Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal of Substrates...........................201
8.14 Role of Substrates in Nutrient and Water Use Efficiency...........202
8.15 Quality Standards and Testing of Growing Media.....................203
Summary....................................................................................204
References..................................................................................205
9 Nutrient Solution Formulation and Water Quality Management in India.........................................................................209 Sambangi Meghana and Madhusmita Pani
9.1 Role of Nutrient Solutions in Soilless Farming..........................210
9.2 Essential Plant Nutrients in Soilless Systems.............................212
9.3 Principles of Nutrient Solution Formulation..............................215
9.4 Nutrient Solution Preparation and Management........................217
9.5 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and pH Management...................218
9.6 Water Quality Parameters Relevant to India..............................220
9.7 Sources of Water for Soilless Farming in India..........................222
9.8 Water Quality Challenges in Indian Conditions.........................224
9.9 Water Treatment and Conditioning Techniques.........................226
9.10 Nutrient Use Efficiency and Recycling......................................228
9.11 Organic and Bio-Based Nutrient Sources..................................229
9.12 Crop-Specific Nutrient Management..........................................231
9.13 Nutrient Deficiencies, Toxicities, and Diagnostics.....................233
9.14 Automation and Sensor-Based Nutrient Management...............235
Summary....................................................................................236
References..................................................................................237
10 Protected Cultivation and Controlled Environment Agriculture in India...........................................................................241 Satya Swarup Bal and Swadeshna Mahala
10.1 Status and Growth of Protected Cultivation in India.................242
10.2 Design and Engineering Aspects................................................244
10.3 Environmental Parameters and Microclimate Management......246
10.4 Integration of Soilless Farming under Protected Structures.......248
10.5 Water and Nutrient Management under Controlled Environment Agriculture ..........................................................250
10.6 Vertical Farming within Controlled Environments....................251
10.7 Automation, Sensors, and Smart Technologies..........................251
10.8 Crop Production Technologies...................................................252
10.9 Pest, Disease, and Biosecurity Management..............................254
10.10 Energy Use and Sustainability...................................................255
Summary....................................................................................256
References..................................................................................257
11 Vertical Farming Models for Urban and Peri-Urban India...........259 Mopada Geetha Sri and Vadaga Dhanasri
11.1 Urbanization and Food Demand in India...................................260
11.2 Principles of Vertical Farming Systems.....................................262
11.3 Types of Vertical Farming Models in India................................263
11.4 Soilless Production Systems Used in Vertical Farming.............265
11.5 Structural and Design Considerations........................................267
11.6 Crop Selection for Urban Vertical Farming...............................269
11.7 Environmental Control and Climate Management.....................271
11.8 Water and Nutrient Management................................................273
11.9 Automation and Digital Technologies........................................274
11.10 Energy Requirements and Sustainability...................................276
Summary....................................................................................277
References..................................................................................278
12 Light, Temperature, and Humidity Management in Vertical Farming................................................................................281 Swadeshna Mahala and Satya Swarup Bal
12.1 Indian Agro-Climatic Diversity and Microclimate Challenges..................................................................................283
12.2 Light Management in Soilless and Vertical Farming.................285
12.3 Temperature Management in Soilless and Vertical Systems......289
12.4 Humidity Management in Soilless Farming...............................292
12.5 Integrated Management of Light, Temperature, and Humidity.....................................................................................296
12.6 Automation and Sensor-Based Environmental Control.............298
Summary....................................................................................299
References..................................................................................300
13 Automation, Sensors, and IoT Applications in Indian Soilless Farming.................................................................................303 Vasistha Ganne and Nihar Ranjan Samal
13.1 Automation in Soilless Farming.................................................304
13.2 Sensors in Soilless and Vertical Farming...................................308
13.3 IoT Applications in Soilless Farming.........................................311
13.4 Challenges and Constraints in India...........................................314
Summary....................................................................................315
References..................................................................................316
14 Crop Selection and Scheduling for Indian Soilless and Vertical Farms....................................................................................319 Sai Shreeta Lenka and Nitesh Ganjhu
14.1 Principles of Crop Selection.......................................................320
14.2 Categories of Suitable Crops for Indian Soilless and Vertical Farms.............................................................................322
14.3 Criteria for Crop Selection in Indian Conditions.......................324
14.4 Crop Scheduling Strategies........................................................326
14.5 Case Studies of Crop Selection and Scheduling in India...........328
14.6 Tools and Decision Support for Crop Scheduling......................329
14.7 Case Studies of Crop Selection and Scheduling in India...........331
Summary....................................................................................332
References..................................................................................333
15 Production Technologies for Leafy Greens, Herbs, and Microgreens........................................................................................337 Mitali Madhusmita Bhuyan and Suchana Padhy
15.1 Crop Selection............................................................................338
15.2 Propagation and Seedling Production........................................340
15.3 Growing Systems and Techniques..............................................341
15.4 Nutrient and Water Management................................................343
15.5 Environmental Management......................................................344
15.6 Crop Management Practices.......................................................346
15.7 Harvesting and Post-Harvest Handling......................................347
Summary....................................................................................348
References..................................................................................349
16 High-Value Vegetable and Fruit Crop Production in Soilless Systems...................................................................................351 Nitesh Ganjhu and Sai Shreeta Lenka
16.1 Selection of Crops for Soilless Systems.....................................352
16.2 Nutrient and Water Management................................................355
16.3 Environmental and Microclimate Management.........................356
16.4 Crop Establishment and Growth Practices.................................358
16.5 Pest, Disease, and Biosecurity Management..............................359
16.6 Yield Optimization and Quality Management............................360
16.7 Economic Feasibility and Market Considerations......................361
Summary....................................................................................363
References..................................................................................364
17 Nursery, Seedling, and Transplant Production Technologies.........367 Suchana Padhy and Mitali Madhusmita Bhuyan
17.1 Principles of Nursery and Seedling Production.........................368
17.2 Seedling Production Systems.....................................................370
17.3 Seedling Propagation Techniques...............................................372
17.4 Environmental Management in Nursery Systems......................373
17.5 Crop‑Specific Nursery Technologies..........................................374
17.6 Seedling Quality Assessment.....................................................376
17.7 Transplanting Techniques...........................................................377
17.8 Automation and Digital Integration...........................................379
17.9 Sustainability and Resource Efficiency......................................380
Summary....................................................................................381
References..................................................................................382
18 Urban Agriculture and Role of Vertical Farming in Food Security......................................................................................385 Vadaga Dhanasri and Kedam Sumanth
18.1 Urban Agriculture in the Indian Context....................................386
18.2 Principles of Vertical Farming....................................................388
18.3 Role of Vertical Farming in Urban Food Security.....................390
18.4 Technological Approaches in Urban Vertical Farming..............391
18.5 Crop Selection for Urban Vertical Farms...................................392
18.6 Socio‑Economic and Policy Dimensions...................................393
Summary....................................................................................395
References..................................................................................396
19 Pest, Disease, and Biosecurity Management in Soilless Farming.................................................................................399 Nihar Ranjan Samal and Vasistha Ganne
19.1 Common Pests in Soilless Systems............................................401
19.2 Common Diseases in Soilless Systems......................................402
19.3 Factors Contributing to Pest and Disease Outbreaks.................404
19.4 Monitoring and Early Detection.................................................406
19.5 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Soilless Systems............407
19.6 Biosecurity Measures.................................................................409
Summary....................................................................................411
References..................................................................................412
20 Economics, Entrepreneurship and Business Models in India.......415 Kedam Sumanth and Mopada Geetha Sri
20.1 Cost Components in Soilless and Vertical Farming...................416
20.2 Revenue and Profitability Analysis............................................418
20.3 Value Chain and Market Linkages.............................................420
20.4 Financing and Investment Opportunities...................................421
20.5 Entrepreneurship and Skill Development...................................423
20.6 Risk and Sensitivity Analysis.....................................................424
20.7 Sustainability and Socio-Economic Impact...............................426
20.8. Future Prospects and Policy Recommendations.........................428
Summary....................................................................................429
References..................................................................................430
