Essentials of Animal Nutrition (A Comprehensive Book on Animal Nutrition)

The author was born on 29 August, 1967 and graduated from College of Veterinary Science, Tirupati in 1989 completing his post-graduation in the Discipline of Feed and Fodder Technology in the year 1991. He did his Doctor of Philosophy in the year 2010 at Tirupati. He completed his MBA course in the year 2011. Popularly famed as Mocherla VAN Suryanarayana in the Google Search, he joined the acedemics in the noble Teachers Profession in the year 2001 after working as Veterinary Assistant Surgeon in the field for over 8 years. In addition to teaching to the undergraduate, post-graduate and Ph.D. students, he also undertakes animal research as a part of research guidance to the post-graduates. He has 51 research articles both at National and International levels to his credit with many of them NAAS rated. He authored 16 books for the benefit of the local farming community and the Veterinary Doctors of the State government. National and State authorities have honoured him with a dozen awards for his academic excellence under various circumstances. He attended to various national & international conferences to present his research works. During this course he was invited to Thailand as a Guest Speaker for One of the International conference during 2012. He has contributed many chapters in the field of Animal Nutrition published by various agencies. He has run 5 research projects as PI and CO-PI sponsored by different agencies. The author would like to be thankful to the GOD for giving him this opportunity to be associated with noble Teaching profession and for making him a good academician. He is associated actively with Animal Nutrition Society of India for which he is one of the Vice-Presidents. Having selected into the noble teaching, the author would like to contribute much more to the field of Animal Nutrition in future

1.  Fundamentals of Animal Nutrition................................................... 1

• Nutrition ...................................................................................................1
• Animal Nutrition.....................................................................................7
• Nutrient analysis of Feedstuffs ............................................................8
• Proximate Principles ............................................................................... 9
• Van Soest Analysis ................................................................................ 16
• Chemical composition of Plants and Animal ................................... 19
• Factors affecting chemical composition of plants ............................ 19
• History of Animal Nutrition ............................................................... 21
• Animal Nutrition in India.................................................................... 24

2. Nutrients ................................................................................................ 47

• Carbohydrates ....................................................................................... 47
• Functions ................................................................................................. 47
• Classification .......................................................................................... 48
• Monosaccharides ................................................................................... 48
• Oligosaccharides ................................................................................... 48
• Disaccharides ......................................................................................... 49
• Polysaccharides ..................................................................................... 49
• Properties ............................................................................................... 51
• Lipids....................................................................................................... 58
• Fatty acids .............................................................................................. 58
• Essential fatty acids .............................................................................. 60
• Omega fatty acids ................................................................................. 61
• Classification of lipids .......................................................................... 62
• Properties of fats ................................................................................... 65
• Proteins................................................................................................... 68
• Amino acids ........................................................................................... 68 
• Classification of amino acids ............................................................... 68
• Nutritive importance of amino acids................................................. 71
• Non-protein nitrogenous substances................................................. 77
• Factors influencing urea utilization in the rumen ........................... 78
• Protein metabolism in the body ......................................................... 79
• Metabolism of amino acids .................................................................. 84
• Measures of protein quality in ruminants ...................................... 104
• Rumen Degradable Protein and Undegradable Protein (RDP and UDP) ............................... 108
• By pass protein treatments ................................................................ 110 
• Minerals ............................................................................................... 114
• Functions of minerals ......................................................................... 114
• Soil-plant-animal inter-relationship ................................................. 116
• Bioavailability of minerals ................................................................. 116
• Inter-relationship among minerals................................................... 117
• Macro minerals .................................................................................... 118
• Vitamins ............................................................................................... 143
• Classification of vitamins ................................................................... 143
• Provitamins .......................................................................................... 145
• Antivitamins ......................................................................................... 145
• Microbial synthesis of vitamins in rumen and intestines ............ 145
• Make the difference between requirement and allowance ......... 146
• Vitamin like substances ...................................................................... 146
• Energy Metabolism ............................................................................ 202
• Partition of food energy .................................................................... 202
• Gross enegy ......................................................................................... 202
• Digestible energy ................................................................................ 203
• Metabolizable energy ......................................................................... 203
• Net energy and Heat increment ...................................................... 206
• Direct calorimetry ............................................................................... 207
• Indirect calorimetry ............................................................................ 208
• Interpretation of RQ ........................................................................... 209
• Measurement of respiratory exchange of gases ............................ 209
• Determination of energy balance ..................................................... 210
• Feed Additives ................................................................................... 212
• Antifungals ........................................................................................... 213
• Antioxidants ......................................................................................... 213
• Pellet binders ....................................................................................... 213
• Feed flavours ....................................................................................... 214
• Digestion modifiers ............................................................................ 214
• Buffers ................................................................................................... 214
• Ion exchange compounds .................................................................. 214
• Ionophores and methane inhibitors................................................. 215
• Isoacids ................................................................................................. 215
• Probiotics (Direct fed microbials) .................................................... 216
• Acidifiers (Organic acids) .................................................................. 219
• Antibloating agents ............................................................................ 220
• Salivation inducers .............................................................................. 220
• Defaunating agents ............................................................................. 221
• Mode of action of antibiotics ............................................................ 222
• Chemotherapeutic agents .................................................................. 224
• Immunomodulators ............................................................................ 225
• Xanthophylls ........................................................................................ 226

3. Feed Technology ................................................................................ 227

• Preparation of feeds & fodders ........................................................ 227
• Unconventional feeds ......................................................................... 228
• Characteristics of unconventional feeds ......................................... 228
• Improving the nutritive value of poor quality roughages .......... 229
• Storage of Livestock Feeds .............................................................. 239
• Abiotic (Physical) factors ................................................................... 239
• Control measures for effective storage of feeds ........................... 242
• Common Adulterants in Feeds and Fodders ............................... 244
• Feed microscopy ................................................................................. 245

4. Applied Nutrition .............................................................................. 247

• Measurement of digestibility ............................................................ 247
• Methods of measuring the digestibility .......................................... 256
• Associative effects of feeds ............................................................... 260 
• Estimation of the digestibility in pasture grazing animals .......... 260
• Factors affecting the digestibility..................................................... 262                                     
• Feeding Standards ............................................................................. 265
• To define feeding standards ............................................................. 265
• Terminology used in feeding standards ......................................... 266
• Nutritional needs and their productive functions ........................ 266
• History of feeding standards ........................................................... 268
• Old day feeding standards ............................................................... 268
• Indian feeding standards .................................................................. 270
• Merits and demerits of various feeding standards ...................... 270                                                       
• Nutritive Requirements (Energy & Protein) for Livestock for Maintenance, Growth and Reproduction........ 272
• Fasting catabolism............................................................................... 273
• Basal metabolism................................................................................. 273
• Methods adopted to estimate energy requirements for maintenance................................................................................ 274
• Protein requirements for maintenance ............................................ 276
• Requirements of proteins for growth ............................................. 277
• Methods of calculation the protein requirements for growth......................................................................................... 277
• Energy requirements for milk production ..................................... 278
• Energy and protein requirements for one egg production ......... 278
• Ration Formulation ........................................................................... 280
• Balanced ration .................................................................................... 280
• Production ration ................................................................................ 280
• Ideal ration ........................................................................................... 281
• Thumb rules for ration formulation ................................................ 281
• Conservation of fodders .................................................................... 283
• Silage making ....................................................................................... 286
• Pre-requisites for a better silage preparation ................................ 287

5. Ruminant Nutrition .......................................................................... 293

• Rumen bacteriology ............................................................................ 293
• Microbial characteristics .................................................................... 294
• Methods of classification of bacteria ............................................... 294
• Rumen protozoa .................................................................................. 297 
• Carbohydrate metabolism in ruminants ......................................... 305
• Metabolism and absorption of VFA ................................................ 306
• Methane production ........................................................................... 308
• Lipid digestion and metabolism in ruminants ............................... 311
• Biohydrogenation ............................................................................... 312
• Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS)........... 310
• Manipulation of Dietary fat in the rumen ...................................... 313
• RDP and UDP ...................................................................................... 316
• NH3 – key intermediate in rumen.................................................... 317
• Evaluation of microbial protein........................................................ 318                                                 
• Dairy Cattle Nutrition ...................................................................... 319
• Maintenance ration ............................................................................. 319
• Balanced ration .................................................................................... 319
• Production ration ................................................................................ 319
• Ideal ration ........................................................................................... 320
• General principles to be followed while making rations for the cattle ..................... 320
• Feeding of young dairy stock ........................................................... 323
• Feeding of cows before calving........................................................ 324
• Foetal nutrition .................................................................................... 325
• Nutrient requirements in pregnancy ............................................... 326
• Feeding newborn calves .................................................................... 327
• Systems of feeding dairy calves ....................................................... 328
• Feeding of calves upto 3 months age .............................................. 331
• Feeding of calves from 3-6 months .................................................. 331
• Feeding of adult cattle ....................................................................... 332
• Gestation ration................................................................................... 334
• Feeding of bullocks ............................................................................. 334                                    
• Buffalo Nutrition ............................................................................... 336
• Feeding of buffalo calves ................................................................... 336
• Feeding of colostrum.......................................................................... 336
• Feeding schedule of calves upto 3 months age ............................. 337
• Feeding of milk replacer.................................................................... 337
• Calf starter ........................................................................................... 339
• Feeding of heifers ............................................................................... 339 
• Feeding of pregnant animals ............................................................ 342
• Feeding of breeding bulls .................................................................. 343                                         
• Sheep Nutrition ................................................................................. 346
• Nutrient requirements for sheep ..................................................... 346
• Copper toxicity in sheep .................................................................... 348
• Nutrition for maintenance ................................................................. 349
• Feeding of rams ................................................................................... 350
• Feeding of lambs (upto 2 weeks) ..................................................... 350
• Creep mixture ...................................................................................... 350
• Feeding during nesting period ......................................................... 352
• Flushing................................................................................................. 352
• Feeding during suckling period ....................................................... 353
• Feeding for wool production............................................................ 354
• Feeding of sheep under range conditions (features).................... 356                                                      
• Goat Nutrition .................................................................................... 357
• Feeding habits of goats ...................................................................... 357
• Nutrient requirements of lactating goats ....................................... 360
• Feeding schedule of kids ................................................................... 360
• Feeding schedule for growing kids ................................................. 361
• Feeding of dry goats .......................................................................... 362
• Feeding of growers ............................................................................ 362
• Feeding of pregnant goats ................................................................ 362
• Feeding of yearling does ................................................................... 363
• Feeding of breeding bucks ................................................................ 363

6. Non-Ruminant Nutrition ................................................................ 365

• Swine nutrition .................................................................................... 365
• Classification of energy in swine ..................................................... 367
• Protein requirements .......................................................................... 398
• Factors affecting protein requirements in swine ........................... 399
• Mineral requirements ......................................................................... 401
• Feeding of pigs .................................................................................... 405
• Suckling pigs ........................................................................................ 405
• Nursery (weaning).............................................................................. 406
• Feeding of growers (15-35 kg body weight) ................................. 409
• Feeding of finishers (35-70 kg body weight) ................................. 410
• Feeding of gestating pigs .................................................................. 410
• Feeding during lactation.................................................................... 412
• Feeding of carbohydrates and fibre ................................................ 413
• Fibre utilization by pigs ..................................................................... 414
• Feeding fats for pigs ........................................................................... 415
• Feeding antibiotics to pigs ................................................................ 416                                       
• Poultry Nutrition ............................................................................... 418
• Feed has six major essential nutrients ............................................. 418
• Common feeds used in poultry production ................................... 422
• Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) specifications for chicken ......................... 423
• Description and functions of the digestive system....................... 424
• Precautions to be followed while feeding the birds ..........................
• Methods of feeding poultry .............................................................. 427
• Feeding of broilers.............................................................................. 428
• Why metabolisable energy in poultry ............................................. 429
• Proteins ................................................................................................. 429
• Vitamins and Minerals ....................................................................... 430
• Starter feeds ......................................................................................... 430
• Grower and finisher feeds ................................................................ 431
• Feeding of layers ................................................................................. 431
• Energy requirements .......................................................................... 432
• Feeding techniques ............................................................................. 433                                               
• Horse Nutrition .................................................................................. 436
• Feedstuffs for horses .......................................................................... 436
• Feeding schedule for horses ............................................................. 436
• Japanese quails nutrition.................................................................... 437

7. Other Aspects of Special Mention ................................................. 439

• Mycotoxins ........................................................................................... 439
• Harmful effects of Alfatoxins ........................................................... 440
• Symptoms of Aflatoxicosis ................................................................ 440
• Suggested maximum levels of Aflatoxins for different livestock.............................. 441
• Metabolic Diseases ............................................................................ 442
• 1. Milk fever......................................................................................... 442
• 2. Bloat .................................................................................................. 444
• 3. Lactic acidosis .................................................................................. 446
• 4. Nitrate toxicity ................................................................................ 448
• 5. Urea toxicity .................................................................................... 449
• 6. Pregnancy toxaemia in sheep........................................................ 450
• 7. Grass tetany ..................................................................................... 451
• 8. Ketosis ............................................................................................... 452                              
• Enzymes ............................................................................................... 456
• Classification of enzymes .................................................................. 456
• Nature of enzymes.............................................................................. 457
• Factors affecting enzyme activity..................................................... 458
• Salient features of active centre/site ............................................... 459
• Enzyme inhibition ............................................................................... 460
• Mechanism of enzyme action ............................................................ 461
• Lock and key model (Fischer’s template theory).......................... 461
• Substrate strain theory ....................................................................... 462
• Thermodynamics of enzymatic reaction ......................................... 462
• Units of enzyme activity .................................................................... 463
• Lignification ......................................................................................... 464
• Cellulolysis ........................................................................................... 465
• Categories of cellulose ....................................................................... 465
• Measurement of cellulolysis .............................................................. 465
• Cellulose of micro-organisms ........................................................... 466
• Cellulase activity in three stages ...................................................... 466                                  
• Synthetic Amino Acids .................................................................... 467
• Latest Trends in the use of Enzymes, Probiotics, Prebiotics in Animal Feeding ................... 467
• Probiotics (Direct Fed Microbials) ................................................... 469
• Prebiotics .............................................................................................. 469                                  
• Global Warming and Livestock Production ................................ 471
• Effect of global warming on live stock ........................................... 472
• Some of the suggestive measures to combat climate change ................................... 472                        
• Toxins in Feeds ................................................................................... 473
• Define a toxicant ................................................................................. 473
• Classification of toxins ....................................................................... 473
• Alkaloids ............................................................................................... 473
• Glycosides ............................................................................................ 474
• Proteinaceous Compounds, Polypeptides and Amines ................ 477
• Proteinaceous compounds ................................................................. 477
• Polypeptides and Amines .................................................................. 478
• Nitrogen-free Plant Toxins ................................................................ 479
• Tannin content of certain feedstuffs ................................................ 480
• Methods of detannification ............................................................... 480
• Mineral toxins/Metal binding substances ...................................... 480
• Voluntary Intake of Food .................................................................. 481
• Short-term regulation of food intake .............................................. 482
• Long-term regulation of food intake .............................................. 482
• Voluntary feed intake in ruminants................................................. 483
• Food characteristics that determine intake .................................... 483
• Factors affecting the voluntary food intake in all animals .......... 484                                                    
• Manipulation of Rumen Health Through Nutritional Interventio..........485                                                                         
• Maintaining rumen health ................................................................. 487
• Healthy rumen pH .............................................................................. 487
• Cud chewing and rumination ........................................................... 487
• Clean, fresh water............................................................................... 487
• Effective fibre ...................................................................................... 487