Dr. Sunil A. Kadam Head, Department of Agricultural Engineering Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Distt. Ahilyanagar-413722, Maharashtra.
Dr. Manish K. Nema Scientist-E, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee Jal Vigyan Bhavan, Roorkee-247667 Distt. Haridwar, Uttarakhand.
Dr. Sunil D. Gorantiwar Former Director of Research Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Distt. Ahilyanagar-413722, Maharashtra.
Dr. Mukund G. Shinde Former Professor (Soil and Water Conservation Engineering) Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Distt. Ahilyanagar-413722, Maharashtra.
Dr. Kalpesh S. Borse Former Research Associate, CAAST-CSAWM Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Distt. Ahilyanagar-413722, Maharashtra.
Dr. Vaibhav S. Malunjkar Research Associate, CoE-DTSPA Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Distt. Ahilyanagar-413722, Maharashtra.
1. Geometric Errors and Corrections on Satellite Images .......................1
1. Introduction ...........................................................................................1
2. Geometric Errors ...................................................................................1
2.1 Systematic Errors ................................................................................2
2.2 Non-Systematic Distortions ................................................................6
3. Geometric Corrections ..........................................................................6
References ...............................................................................................12
2. Image Classification: Supervised and Unsupervised & Accuracy Assessment ............................................................................13
1. Introduction .........................................................................................13
2. Image Interpretation ............................................................................13
3. Digital Image Classification ................................................................16
4. Supervised Classification ....................................................................20
5. Unsupervised Classification ................................................................25
6. Sources of Uncertainty in Image Classification ..................................29
7. Accuracy Assessment ..........................................................................30
References ...............................................................................................34
3. Image Classification ..............................................................................35
1. Introduction .........................................................................................35
2. Concept of Image Classification ..........................................................35
2.1. Approaches to Classification ............................................................36
2.1.1 Unsupervised classification ............................................................37
2.1.2 Supervised classification ................................................................39
4. Interpolation Techniques ......................................................................45
1. Introduction .........................................................................................45
2. Interpolation Techniques .....................................................................45
2.1 Idw .....................................................................................................45
2.2 Natural Neighbour Inverse Distance Weighted (NNIDW)................46
5. Hydrological Analysis using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) ...........53
1. Introduction .........................................................................................53
2. Terminology Associated with Dem .....................................................53
2.1 Digital Surface Model (DSM) ...........................................................53
2.2 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) ..........................................................54
3. Creation of Dem ..................................................................................55
3.1 Interpolation Technique/ Point and Line ..........................................55
3.2 Interferometry (RADARS) ...............................................................55
3.3 Altimeters/LIDARS ...........................................................................55
4. Dem Online Sources ............................................................................56
5. Terrain Parameters and Their Extraction .............................................57
6. Watershed Delineation .........................................................................58
6.1 Fill Sinks of Dem .............................................................................58
6.2 Flow Direction in a DEM ..................................................................58
6.3 Flow Accumulation in DEM Processing ...........................................59
6.4 Stream Ordering ................................................................................59
7. Dem Applications in Hydrology ..........................................................60
References ...............................................................................................60
6. Hydrologic Response Units (HRUs) .....................................................61
1. Introduction .........................................................................................61
2. Hydrologic Response Units .................................................................62
3. The Significance of A Hru ...................................................................63
4. Conclusion ...........................................................................................63
References ...............................................................................................64
7. Introduction and Development of Semi-Distributed Hydrologic Model: SWAT .....................................................................65
1. Overview of Swat ................................................................................65
2. Land Phase Components of Hydrologic Cycle ...................................66
2.1 Weather ..............................................................................................66
2.1.1 Precipitation ....................................................................................66
2.1.2 Solar Radiation and Air Temperature .............................................67
2.1.3 Relative Humidity ..........................................................................67
2.1.4 Wind Speed .....................................................................................67
2.1.5 Snow Cover and Snowmelt ............................................................67
2.1.6 Soil Temperature ............................................................................68
2.2 Hydrology ..........................................................................................68
2.2.1 Canopy Storage ..............................................................................69
2.2.2 Infiltration and Surface Runoff .......................................................69
2.2.3 Percolation ......................................................................................71
2.2.4 Evapotranspiration ..........................................................................72
2.2.5 Lateral Subsurface Flow .................................................................73
2.2.6 Groundwater Flow ..........................................................................73
2.2.7 Transmission Loss ..........................................................................74
2.2.8 Ponds ..............................................................................................74
2.3 Erosion and Sediment Yield ..............................................................75
2.4 Nutrients and Pesticides ....................................................................76
2.5 Crop Growth ......................................................................................77
2.6 Agricultural Management ..................................................................77
3. Routing Phase Components of Hydrologic Cycle ...............................77
3.1 Main Channel Routing ......................................................................77
3.1.1 Channel Flood Routing ..................................................................77
3.1.2 Channel Sediment Routing .............................................................79
3.1.3 Channel Nutrient Routing ..............................................................80
3.1.4 Channel Pesticide Routing .............................................................80
3.2 Routing in the Reservoir ....................................................................81
3.2.1 Reservoir Water Balance ................................................................81
3.2.2 Reservoir Sediment Routing ..........................................................81
3.2.3 Reservoir Nutrients .........................................................................81
3.2.4 Reservoir Pesticides .......................................................................82
References ...............................................................................................82
8. Hydrologic Modelling for Decision Support Systems in Water Resources ....................................................................................85
1. Introduction ........................................................................................85
2. Decision Support Systems ...................................................................85
3. Modelling Concepts ............................................................................87
3.1. Classification of Hydrological Models .............................................88
4. Decision Tool For Selection Of Suitable Zones For Water Harvesting Structures ................................................................89
5. Dss For Water Resources Planning Using River Basin Modelling .....90
6. Real Time Dss For Flood Forecasting & Early Warning System ........93
9. Remote Sensing and GIS in Watershed Modelling ............................97
1. Introduction ........................................................................................97
1.1 The Shift Toward Spatial Hydrology.................................................98
1.2 The Role of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) ........................98
1.3 Integration of RS and GIS in Hydrological Modelling .....................99
1.4 Advantages of Using RS and GIS in Watershed Hydrology .............99
1.5 Modern Hydrology: From Observation to Prediction .....................100
2. Remote Sensing Fundamentals ........................................................100
2.1 Principles of Remote Sensing ..........................................................100
2.1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) ................................................100
2.2 Types of Remote Sensing Based on Platform .................................101
2.3 Types of Remote Sensing Based on Sensors ...................................102
2.3.1 Passive Remote Sensing ...............................................................102
2.3.2 Active Remote Sensing ................................................................103
2.4 Remote Sensing Data used in Hydrology ........................................103
2.5 Importance of Remote Sensing in Watershed Hydrology ...............105
2.6 Limitations of Remote Sensing .......................................................105
3.1 Components of GIS for Watershed Studies .....................................106
3.1.1 Spatial Data ..................................................................................106
3.2 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Terrain Analysis ....................106
3.3 Hydrological Tools Available in GIS ...............................................107
3.4 GIS Database Development for Watershed Modelling ...................108
3.5 Spatial Analysis in GIS ....................................................................108
3.6 GIS in Distributed Hydrological Modelling ....................................109
3.7 Role of GIS in Watershed Decision Support Systems .....................109
3.8 Limitations of GIS in Hydrological Modelling ...............................109
4. DEM-Based Watershed Delineation .................................................110
4.1 Sources of DEM Data ......................................................................110
4.2 Hydrological Processing Steps Using a DEM .................................111
4.3 Watershed Parameters Derived from DEM .....................................112
4.4 Importance of DEM in Watershed Modelling .................................112
5. Land Use / Land Cover (LULC) Mapping Using Remote Sensing ..113
5.1 Importance of LULC in Watershed Hydrology ...............................114
5.2 Remote Sensing Data Used for LULC Mapping .............................114
5.3 LULC Classification Techniques .....................................................115
5.3.1 Unsupervised Classification .........................................................115
5.3.2 Supervised Classification .............................................................115
5.3.3 Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA / GEOBIA) .......................115
5.3.4 Time-Series Classification ............................................................116
5.4 Vegetation Indices for LULC Mapping ...........................................116
5.5 LULC Classification Workflow (with Satellite Data)......................116
5.6 Realistic Satellite-Style LULC Map (Example) ..............................117
5.7 Change Detection Using LULC Maps ............................................118
5.8 Importance of LULC Maps in Hydrological Models ......................118
5.9 Summary .........................................................................................119
6. Hydrological Parameters Derived from Remote Sensing ................119
6.1 Rainfall Estimation from Satellite Data ..........................................119
6.2 Evapotranspiration (ET) Estimation ................................................120
6.3 Soil Moisture Estimation .................................................................121
6.4 Surface Temperature (LST) .............................................................121
6.5 Snow Cover and Snowmelt Estimation ...........................................122
6.6 Surface Water Detection ..................................................................122
6.7 Vegetation Parameters Derived from RS .........................................123
6.8 Integration of RS-Derived Parameters in Hydrological Models .....123
6.9 Summary .........................................................................................124
7. Integration of RS & GIS with Hydrological Models ........................124
7.1 Role of RS & GIS in Hydrological Modelling ................................124
7.2 Integration with SWAT Model (Soil & Water Assessment Tool) ....125
7.3 Integration with HEC-HMS Using GIS (HEC-GeoHMS) ..............125
7.4 Integration with MIKE SHE — A Fully Distributed Hydrological Model .........................................................................126
7.5 General RS–GIS–Hydrology Integration Framework .....................127
7.6 Advantages of RS & GIS Integration in Hydrological Models .......128
7.7 Challenges and Limitations .............................................................128
7.8 Summary .........................................................................................128
8. Applications of Remote Sensing & GIS in Watershed Hydrology ...129
8.1 Rainfall–Runoff Modelling .............................................................129
8.2 Flood Modelling & Flood Inundation Mapping ..............................130
8.3 Soil Erosion & Sediment Yield Assessment ....................................130
8.4 Evapotranspiration & Crop Water Requirement .............................131
8.5 Drought Assessment & Monitoring .................................................131
8.6 Groundwater Recharge & Aquifer Studies ......................................132
8.7 Snow Hydrology & Snowmelt Runoff ............................................132
8.8 Water Quality Monitoring ...............................................................133
8.9 River Morphology & Change Detection .........................................133
8.10 Land Use Change Impact on Hydrology .......................................133
8.11 Climate Change Impact Studies ....................................................134
8.12 Watershed Prioritization ................................................................134
8.13 Reservoir Sedimentation Assessment ............................................134
8.14 Summary .......................................................................................135
References .............................................................................................135
10. Climate Change Impacts on Watershed Hydrology .........................139
1. Introduction .......................................................................................139
2. Changing Climate Variables and Their Influence on Hydrology ......142
3. Impacts on Watershed Hydrological Components ............................144
4. Climate-Driven Hydrological Extremes ............................................146
5. Hydrological Modelling for Climate Change Assessment ................147
6. Climate Change Effects on Water Resources and Ecosystems ..........148
7. Strategies for Climate-Resilient Watershed Management .................148
8. Conclusion .........................................................................................148
References .............................................................................................149
